Biofilms and Their Multidimensional Impacts: From Combating Industrial and Clinical Risks to Unlocking Opportunities in Sustainable Agriculture (2025)

Biofilms are microbial communities embedded in a matrix of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) that irreversibly adhere to surfaces in natural, industrial, and clinical environments. Their formation involves a dynamic, multi-step process influenced by microbial interactions, EPS production, and surface properties. Biofilms provide microorganisms with protection against environmental stresses and antimicrobial agents, creating significant challenges in healthcare and industry. In industrial settings, Microbial Induced Corrosion (MIC) is a major issue, with biofilms contributing to the degradation of metallic and nonmetallic surfaces through mechanisms like electrochemical cell formation and the production of corrosive metabolites. Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) and other microbes accelerate this process, impacting the lifespan of pipelines, marine structures, and industrial equipment. Clinically, biofilm-associated infections constitute 70% of all infections, resisting antibiotics and immune responses. These infections complicate treatment, impair medical implants, and are linked to chronic conditions like cystic fibrosis and diabetic foot ulcers. Emerging diagnostic tools, such as biosensors, and treatments like nanoparticles, conjugated antimicrobials, and phage therapy, offer promising solutions. In agriculture, biofilms enhance the virulence of pathogens but also support beneficial effects. Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria (PGPB) within biofilms help plants combat biotic and abiotic stresses while promoting growth through beneficial metabolite production.

Author Information

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• Atiye Karadoğan

  • Biology Department, Faculty of Art and Science, Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey

• Fatma Azgin

  • Biology Department, Faculty of Art and Science, Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey

• Esra Sündüz Yiğittekin

  • Biology Department, Faculty of Art and Science, Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey

• Sadik Dinçer *

  • Biology Department, Faculty of Art and Science, Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey

*Address all correspondence to: sdincer@cu.edu.tr

1. Introduction

A biofilm is a community of cells organized in microcolonies, irreversibly attached to a surface and embedded in an organic polymer matrix of microbial origin formed at the interface between a liquid medium and a surface [1, 2]. Bacteria form biofilms in natural and industrial environments as a defense mechanism against antibacterial chemicals, environmental bacteriophages, and phagocytes. Biofilms are capable of developing on various surfaces, including living tissues, medical devices, pipelines in industrial or drinking water systems, and natural water sources. The solid-liquid interface provides an ideal environment for microorganisms to adhere and multiply [3].

The formation of biofilms is a complex and dynamic process that begins with the following steps: Planktonic bacteria are delivered to solid surfaces through hydrodynamic forces and mechanisms of physical or chemical adsorption. Extracellular structures such as flagella, folds, fimbriae or pili, and outer membrane proteins facilitate bacterial recognition and interaction with surfaces. These interactions are crucial for biofilm development as they allow bacterial cells to overcome long-range repulsive forces near the surface. Additionally, these processes are modulated by the physicochemical properties of the substrate surface, including factors such as charge and hydrophobicity. At this stage, bacteria typically show Brownian motion and can be easily removed from the surface by shear forces. Once initial attachment occurs, flagellar movement is restricted, and attached cells begin to produce extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) (Figure 1). EPS production shifts bacterial attachment from a reversible to an irreversible state. Due to the EPS matrix, these attached cells become increasingly difficult to detach from the surface. The composition of EPS varies depending on the bacterial species and growth conditions. As cells proliferate and accumulate more EPS, these micron-scale aggregates grow into mature biofilms, forming three-dimensional structures [4].

The extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) play a critical role in biofilm architecture by anchoring biofilm cells and maintaining them in proximity. This close spatial arrangement promotes intense interactions, including intercellular communication and the establishment of synergistic micro-consortia [5]. The composition of EPS includes polysaccharides, proteins, extracellular DNA (eDNA), and lipids. The structural integrity of the biofilm matrix is preserved through non-covalent interactions, which are mediated by weak physicochemical forces between the components of the EPS [1].

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2. Biofilms in industry

Impacts corrosion is a harmful process that occurs when metals undergo chemical or electrochemical reactions with their environment. This electrochemical phenomenon involves the release of electrons from the metal at anodic sites and their acquisition at cathodic sites [6, 7].

M→M2++2e−Anodic reactionE1

1/2O2+H2O+2e−→2OH−Cathodic reactionatneutral or alkaline pHE2

Microbial Induced Corrosion (MIC) is a type of corrosion caused by the presence and activities of microorganisms, leading to the deterioration of both metallic and nonmetallic materials [7]. MIC is considered the direct cause of severe corrosion failures and leads to damage costs reaching billions of U.S. dollars annually. Microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, archaea, and microalgae can directly or indirectly influence corrosion, depending on specific interactions between the microorganism, the material, and the electrolyte [8].

Biofilms actively contribute to corrosion through various mechanisms such as accumulation of cells at different concentrations, production of corrosive substances, changes in anion ratios, and inactivation of corrosion inhibitors [7].

When a metal surface is covered by a biofilm, the portion of the metal outside the biofilm remains exposed to oxygen, while the metal beneath the biofilm is shielded from oxygen exposure. This disparity in oxygen availability results in the formation of a corrosion cell within the anodic zone under the biofilm, where metal ions are generated, leading to localized pitting corrosion. Electrons migrate to the metal surface outside the biofilm to facilitate oxygen reduction (cathodic reaction), during which hydroxyl ions are produced (Figure 2). These systems are referred to as oxygen concentration cells and are frequently linked to microbially influenced corrosion. Liu et al. [9] demonstrated that the adhesion of Vibrio natriegens to a surface enhances the anodic reaction rate, thereby accelerating the dissolution of aluminum.

Biofilms diminish the efficacy of corrosion inhibitors by establishing a diffusion barrier that obstructs direct interaction between the metal surface and the inhibitors present in the environment. Additionally, microorganisms are capable of degrading specific corrosion inhibitors, such as aliphatic amines and nitrites. This microbial degradation not only compromises the performance of the inhibitors but also facilitates the proliferation of microbial populations, thereby accelerating the corrosion process [10].

Microorganisms produce both inorganic and organic acids that can have corrosive effects on metals. The primary inorganic acid involved in metal corrosion is sulfuric acid, which is produced by acidophilic and sulfur-oxidizing bacteria. These bacteria thrive in environments where sulfur compounds are reduced and can produce very low pH levels (pH2–5) when oxygen is present. Important microorganisms include Thiobacillus thiooxidans and Thiobacillus ferrooxidans; the latter is often associated with acidic mine drainage [11].

Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) are the microorganisms most strongly linked to microbial-induced corrosion (MIC). These bacteria utilize sulfate as a terminal electron acceptor in their metabolic processes, resulting in the production of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S). They belong to a diverse group of anaerobic microorganisms that inhabit a wide range of environments. The metabolic activities of SRB contribute to the accumulation of sulfur compounds near metal surfaces, significantly accelerating the corrosion process. SRBs are a critical area of focus in MIC research, with several corrosion mechanisms attributed to their activity, including:

• Cathodic depolarization via dehydrogenase enzymes

• Anodic depolarization processes

• Secretion of exopolysaccharides that bind metal ions

• Sulfur-induced stress corrosion cracking

• Hydrogen-induced cracking and bubbling

• Formation of metal sulfides

These effects of SRB play an important role in the degradation of metal surfaces [10].

von Wolzogen Kuhr and van der Vlugt [12] proposed the following electrochemical reactions related to the MIC performed by SRB:

4Fe→4Fe2++8e−anodic reactionE3

8H2O→8H++8OH−water dissociationE4

8H++8e−→8Hcathodic reactionE5

SO42−+8H→S2−+4H2Obacterial consumptionE6

Fe2++S2−→FeScorrosion productsE7

4Fe+SO42−+4H2O3→FeOH2+FeS+2OH−E8

Ilhan-Sungur et al. [13] showed that sulfate-reducing bacteria (Desulfovibrio sp.) are responsible for corrosion of galvanized steel.

Cetin and Aksu conducted a study demonstrating that the corrosion rate of steel samples significantly increased when exposed to Desulfotomaculum sp. bacteria. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) analyses revealed that these bacteria caused severe corrosion on the steel surface [14].

Misoni and Ihejirika investigated the microbiologically influenced corrosion of mild steel and aluminum in seawater caused by the sulfate-reducing bacterium Desulfotomaculum sp. Their findings revealed that in the presence of SRB, the average corrosion rate of mild steel and aluminum coupons was four times higher compared to those in environments without Desulfotomaculum sp. [15].

Anandkumar et al. investigated the presence of the sulfate-reducing bacterium Desulfobulbus propionicus in the cooling towers of a petroleum refinery and analyzed its corrosion behavior on steel. Electrochemical and weight loss analyses revealed that D. propionicus significantly increased pitting corrosion in cooling towers. Their findings also demonstrated that the presence of this bacterium accelerated the corrosion rate through the production of corrosive H₂S [16].

While SRB are among the most extensively studied microorganisms in MIC, other bacterial groups have also been implicated in metal deterioration.

Aruliah and Ting conducted a study aimed at characterizing the corrosive bacterial communities present in water samples collected from a cooling tower. They identified seven aerobic bacterial species: Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Massilia timonae, Massilia albidiflava, Pseudomonas mosselii, Massilia sp., and Pseudomonas sp. Notably, the Massilia genus was detected for the first time in cooling tower water, and it was observed to form a thin bacterial biofilm and cause pitting corrosion on copper metal surfaces [17].

MIC is common in a variety of environments such as soil, freshwater and seawater, and in numerous industries, including petroleum, power generation and marine sectors. Systems with high microbial populations that are not effectively controlled, systems operating in stagnant or low flow conditions, and environments with temperatures that support microbial life are more susceptible to MIC. This susceptibility is often seen in industries such as power plants, refineries, petrochemical plants, steel mills, paper and pulp mills, and marine infrastructure [8, 18].

Given all these problems caused by MIC, it is necessary to develop an effective prevention strategy. Appropriate treatment methods should be selected to prevent biofilm formation or eliminate existing biofilm. Microbial Influenced Corrosion (MIC) is estimated to be responsible for approximately 20% of corrosion-related damage. In the UK, 10% of corrosion incidents are believed to be caused by biocorrosion. In addition, the lifespan of flowlines in Western Australia has been reduced from the intended 20+years to less than 3years due to MIC. Microbial corrosion is also considered one of the main causes of corrosion problems in underground pipelines [18].

Various methods are used to reduce biofilm accumulation on engineering surfaces. These methods include adding oxidizing or nonoxidizing biocides to water to eliminate microorganisms from entering the system or slow their growth within the biofilm, mechanically removing biofilms from surfaces using tools such as sponge balls or brushes, and treating water by aeration or deaeration to reduce the number and types of microorganisms [10].

The most common method used in industries to prevent biofilm formation and thus microbial corrosion is the use of biocides that inhibit the growth of microorganisms or kill them.

Biocides used in industrial water treatment are inevitably released into the environment over time. Ideally, a biocide should only target the specific microorganisms for which it is intended. However, all chemicals have different degrees of impact on plant and animal life depending on their concentration. It is generally assumed that dilution and natural degradation will neutralize biocides. Laboratory studies have shown that commercially available biocides are biodegradable. However, these findings do not necessarily mean that such degradation will readily occur in the natural environment [19].

Considering all these factors, the use of environmentally friendly products should be encouraged. Prevention of biofilm formation using plant extracts and coating metal surfaces with metabolites of lactic acid bacteria with biosurfactant properties can be preferred as an alternative to the use of biocides.

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3. Biofilms as a health concern

It is estimated that approximately 70% of clinically significant infections are biofilm-associated. Compared to their planktonic forms, bacteria within biofilms exhibit higher resistance to physical and chemical factors, complicating treatment, prolonging hospital stays, increasing healthcare costs, and ultimately categorizing them as an economic and social issue [20].

Current diagnostic methods still primarily focus on isolating bacteria, which can lead to the oversight of infections that develop on a biofilm basis. Bacteria in biofilm form can tolerate antibiotics up to 1000 times more effectively, rendering antibiotic treatment insufficient and increasing the likelihood of resistance development. When infections are identified as biofilm-based, a change in therapeutic direction becomes necessary. The global spread of antibiotic resistance and the insufficiency of antibiotics in combating biofilm-associated infections have laid the groundwork for the development of novel therapeutic approaches and antimicrobial/anti-biofilm agents. The development of materials to prevent biofilm formation for medical device manufacturing is considered a preventive measure. The development of electrochemical biosensors, particularly Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), has shown promising results. This method is projected to support significant research, especially in detecting biofilms without causing tissue damage, developing anti-biofilm agents, and monitoring treatment progress [21].

The three-dimensional structure of biofilms includes a region deep within the biofilm containing dormant bacteria known as “persister” cells. These cells constitute approximately 1% of the biofilm. In the event of chemical or physical damage to the biofilm, persister cells can restore the biofilm structure once conditions return to normal. Due to their slowed metabolism, these cells are unaffected by antimicrobials [22].

Exopolysaccharides form a matrix structure that retains water, facilitating the transport of nutrients, gene transfer, and the distribution of signaling molecules within the biofilm. Data indicate that Pseudomonas aeruginosa polysaccharides are associated with virulence [23]. The extracellular DNA (eDNA) within biofilms was once thought to be a gene pool enabling horizontal gene transfer or merely remnants of dead bacteria. However, it has been shown that eDNA molecules are part of supramolecular structures, such as stable filamentous networks, common to both environmental and pathogenic biofilms. These molecules contribute to escaping immune responses, neutralizing antimicrobials, and serving as an energy source during starvation. However, the mechanisms of eDNA release and regulation within biofilms remain unknown. The discovery of programmed cell lysis within biofilms suggests it may contribute to the biofilm’s polymeric structure [24]. The use of DNase has been shown to inhibit biofilms of P. aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus [25], as well as to enhance the penetration of antibiotics into biofilms, making it effective in immature biofilm structures [26].

Lipids within the matrix contribute to biofilm formation by reducing surface tension, allowing biofilms to adhere to challenging surfaces.

The insufficiency of biofilm detection underlying infections, coupled with increasing research data on biofilm structure and function, inspires the development of new methodologies. The development of electrochemical biosensors, particularly EIS, has shown promising results. The identification of biofilm-based infection foci in clinical settings will facilitate accurate diagnosis and treatment decisions.

In biofilm formation, both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria produce “biofilm-associated proteins” (bap) that exhibit structural and functional similarities. Bap, a bacterial surface protein of high molecular weight, plays a role in maintaining cell surface hydrophobicity, a key factor in biofilm formation. It promotes strong intercellular adhesion by forming amyloid structures under environmental conditions [27].

Quorum Sensing (QS) is a chemical communication system through which bacteria within biofilms coordinate gene expression. QS employs signal molecules, known as autoinducers (AIs), which accumulate to a threshold level to facilitate bacterial coordination in response to population density and changes in the host environment. QS enables biofilms to function as multicellular structures. Autoinducers are classified into three main categories: autoinducing peptides (AIPs) found in Gram-positive bacteria, acyl-homoserine lactones (AHLs) present in Gram-negative bacteria, and autoinducer-2 (AI-2), which is common to both types [28].

Divalent cations such as Ca/Mg contribute to the physical stability of the anionic EPS structure, playing significant roles in the maturation phase of biofilms [29].

In 2017, the World Health Organization (WHO) published a list of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms requiring urgent development of new antimicrobial therapies. These bacteria, collectively referred to as ESKAPE, include Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter spp. The shared characteristic among these bacteria is their ability to develop biofilm-based infections [30].

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4. Biofilms in agriculture

With the increase in the world population, agricultural production needs to increase by approximately 50% by 2050 in order to meet the food demand [40]. However, the intensification of production to achieve this goal leads to excessive use of chemical fertilizers [41]. Farmers intensively use chemical fertilizers and pesticides to increase productivity and meet food demand. The overuse of these chemicals threatens sustainable agriculture by causing environmental degradation, changes in soil pH, and excess fertilizer leaching into groundwater and damaging aquatic ecosystems [42].

A healthy soil is essential for plant growth. Functions of soil microorganisms such as nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition, plant nutrition and disease resistance contribute to soil health. Soil microorganisms interact both with each other and with plants to improve soil structure and increase plant resistance to harsh environmental conditions [43].

Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria (PGPB) are a group of beneficial bacteria commonly found in the root environment of plants that promote plant growth and the absorption and utilization of mineral nutrients. Playing an important role in soil health and agricultural sustainability, PGPBs include well-characterized species such as Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillus subtilis, Azospirillum brasilense, Rhizobium leguminosarum, Streptomyces lydicus, and Burkholderia phytofirmans [44, 45]. These microorganisms establish either symbiotic relationships with plant roots or thrive as free-living organisms in the rhizosphere.

The mechanisms of action of PGPBs and the molecular mechanism of the symbiotic relationship they form with plants and the development of methods of their use in agricultural fields have become of increasing research interest in recent years.

One of the most desirable characteristics of PGPBs is their ability to effectively colonize plant roots and leaf surfaces. This colonization is possible only if the bacteria form a biofilm structure. In nature, bacteria develop biofilm organizations rather than planktonic forms. A biofilm is a form of colonization in which different species often have synergistic relationships. Biofilms refer to communities of microorganisms organized in extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) that they produce by attaching to a living or nonliving surface. Although the structure of EPS varies according to abiotic conditions and the diversity of microorganisms gathered, it generally contains exopolysaccharides, protein, lipid, and eDNA (Figure 4) [46].

It has been shown that QS molecules of PGPB bacteria are active in regulating gene expression of activities such as nitrogen fixation, ACC deaminase activity, and phytohormone synthesis [47]. Furthermore, among these QS molecules, AHLs significantly enhance plant defense responses, thereby increasing resistance against pathogens. These molecules activate the Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) signaling cascade (particularly MPK3/MPK6), triggering various defense mechanisms, including callose deposition, stomatal closure, and phytoalexin production [48]. Notably, specific AHLs such as 3-oxo-C8-HSL coordinate both salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid/ethylene (JA/ET) pathways, reducing Pseudomonas syringae proliferation by up to 70% [49]. These findings demonstrate the potential of AHL-based biostimulants as sustainable alternatives to chemical pesticides in agricultural applications.

Induced Systemic Resistance (ISR) is a natural resistance mechanism of plants against pathogens. Compounds such as lipopolysaccharide, siderophore, and volatile organic compound (VOC) that enable the plant to generate an ISR response by PGPBs have been characterized. PGPBs regulate the signaling pathways that enable the synthesis of these compounds within the biofilm more strongly compared to mutants with inhibited biofilm formation [50, 51].

The skeleton of the biofilm structure is formed by exopolysaccharides with high water retention capacity. Exopolysaccharides function in biotic and abiotic stress management of PGPB bacteria. Global Climate Change (GCC) is exposing crops to more abiotic stresses and risks from extreme weather events.

As a result of the GCC, surface waters are decreasing with increasing temperatures and excessive evaporation. While this situation causes drought, it leads to increased precipitation and floods in areas where vapors are concentrated. The decrease in surface water and the change in the world water distribution result in drought, which is the abiotic stress that affects agricultural areas the most. Strategies to manage drought include the development of drought-tolerant crops as well as the use of PGPB bacteria that show stress-reducing activities. Drought in the microenvironment of PGPB bacteria causes changes in the composition of the exopolysaccharides they produce. Azospirillum brasilense Sp245, a rhizospheric bacterium, with the modification of producing carbohydrate complexes with high molecular weight (lipopolysaccharide-protein and polysaccharide-lipid complexes), forms a biofilm layer with high water retention capacity, increasing the water content of the rhizosphere and thus allowing the plant metabolism to adapt to drought [52].

The soil aggregation formed by the biofilm structures of PGPBs in the rhizospheric area facilitates the uptake of water and minerals from the roots and forms a barrier to prevent the plant from being affected by the lack of water in the bulk soil. There are studies showing that increasing the D-glucuronate content of polysaccharides in the EPS structure under drought conditions promotes plant growth by increasing water retention capacity. It has been suggested that modifications in the functional groups of bacterial exopolysaccharides may trigger antioxidant mechanisms that manage stress in plants [53].

Globally, 20% of irrigated agricultural land is degraded due to salinity, and this is projected to reach 50% by 2050. Sodium is the most common and most harmful agent in soil salinization. In the biofilms of plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB) present in the rhizospheric zone, exopolysaccharides (EPS) play a critical role by binding cations, including Na⁺, and preventing their uptake by plant roots. This mechanism helps maintain the K⁺/Na⁺ balance and protects plants from the adverse effects of salinity. Numerous studies have demonstrated that EPS can render Na⁺ inaccessible to plant roots through sodium chelation in the soil [54]. For instance, EPS produced by Pseudomonas sp. AK-1 has been shown to bind free Na⁺ in soil, effectively reducing its uptake by soybean plants and promoting normal growth even under saline conditions of up to 200mM NaCl [55]. Additionally, plants in saline soils increase the exudation of specific sugars, such as rhamnose and trehalose, from their roots, which attract salt-tolerant bacteria to the root zone, further enhancing their resilience to salinity.

Soil is contaminated with heavy metals due to industrial activities, excessive use of pesticides, and nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium (NPK) fertilizers. Heavy metals, which are a permanent threat due to their non-biodegradability, can have toxic effects even in trace amounts on living organisms in nature. Biofilm structure adsorbs heavy metals and acts as a barrier, preventing their bioavailability to plants [56]. Heavy metals can be immobilized and detoxified by biofilms through mechanisms such as biosorption, reduction, oxidation, and precipitation. With these mechanisms, metals can be transformed into less harmful forms, as well as removing metals from soil and water. In addition, it has been shown that bacteria that improve the growth of plants used in phytoremediation have high biofilm formation abilities [57].

The ability of plant pathogens to form biofilms is seen as part of their virulence. Biofilm-forming pathogens are able to neutralize immune responses and antimicrobials synthesized by the plant. The extremely slow metabolism of persister cells within the biofilm makes it almost impossible for biofilms to be completely eradicated in the face of changing conditions such as UV radiation, drought, and insufficient nutrient availability. The advanced survival strategies of biofilm-forming phytopathogens make them more detrimental to crop yield and quality [58].

Rosmarinic acid, one of the plant defense compounds, is effective against planktonic pathogens [59]. The biofilm structure of pathogens makes them resistant to this compound. Pseudomonas syringae pv. Syringae is the causal agent of brown spot disease on leaves, and biofilms have been shown to play an important role in its virulence [60]. Xanthomonas campestris pv. Campestris causes black rot disease of cruciferous crops by colonizing the xylem. Biofilm colonization of these bacteria is mediated by virulence factors such as degrading enzymes and xanthan gum, an exopolysaccharide [61]. Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. Sepedonicus causes bacterial ring rot by forming biofilm on potato plants through exopolysaccharides [62].

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5. Conclusion

Biofilms are complex microbial communities with significant impacts in industrial, clinical, and agricultural fields. Their formation processes, driven by microbial interactions and the production of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), enable microorganisms to acquire resistance to environmental stresses but also pose significant challenges. In industrial systems, biofilms are the primary cause of microbial-induced corrosion (MIC), leading to material degradation and economic losses. The mechanisms of MIC, such as the production of corrosive metabolites, inactivation of inhibitors, and the formation of localized electrochemical cells, highlight the need for effective control strategies. In clinical settings, biofilm-based infections show increasing resistance to antibiotics and immune responses, complicating treatment and increasing healthcare costs. The development of innovative diagnostics, such as biosensors, could enable the identification of biofilm structures without compromising tissue integrity. Nanoparticles that target the biofilm structure and eliminate infections, the development of antimicrobial agents, and effective treatment methods to be conjugated with conventional therapies are being studied. Phage therapies also target the biofilm structure. It is important for medical device developers to develop materials with anti-biofilm properties. The biofilm formation of PGPBs is crucial to improve plant growth and make plants more resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses. However, they increase the virulence of phytopathogens, making biofilms an agricultural problem.

Effective biofilm management requires a multidisciplinary approach that combines environmental sustainability with technological innovation. Environmentally friendly solutions such as plant-derived biocides, biosurfactants, and advanced coatings hold promise as alternatives to conventional chemical treatments. Future research should prioritize the development of cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and scalable strategies to address the diverse challenges presented by biofilms, increase the lifespan and efficiency of industrial systems, improve clinical outcomes, and support sustainable agricultural practices.